Webthe relationship between culture and globalization; and values and goals in globalization. WebAs a result of globalization, educational change occurs in the development of basic and higher education in many countries in the one world. A. Darder (2015), Paulo Freire and the continuing struggle to decolonize education, in M. A Peters and T. Besley (Eds. With emulation and relativization also came a sense of a global standard of values, for goods and resources, and for the behavior and organization of individuals and groups in societies, though ethnocentrism and xenophobia was also often a part of such global comparison.5. Among recent strands of educational research fueled by appreciation for globalization is the exploration of the global economy of knowledge. As globalization is increasingly regarded with ambivalence in relation to the perceived impact of global and transnational actors and processes on local educational systems, educators are increasingly asked not to respond passively to globalization, through enacting internationalization and global economic agendas or echoing simplistic conceptualizations or evaluations of globalization via their curriculum. This is important, for as is illustrated here, the ways of conceptualizing globalization are diverse, in terms of how the era of globalization is framed chronologically (as essential to the human condition, to modernity, or as a late 20th-century phenomena), what its chief characteristics are from cultural, political-economic, and technological views, and whether its impact on human life and history is seen as good or bad. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Thus, the first modern global educational research was that conducted by bodies affiliated with or housed under UNESCO, such as the International Bureau of Education, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, and the International Institute of Educational Planning, which are regarded as foundational bodies sponsoring international and comparative research. The truth regarding how globalization processes and practices are impacting contemporary education no doubt lies in focusing somewhere in between the promises and the risks, depending on the context in question: the society, the educational level, the particular community, and so on. Listen to an interview with Susan Robertson and Roger Dale, Co-Editors of Globalisation, Societies & Education. Rodrik, 1997). However, these processes are uneven, and they can be seen to impact different communities in various ways, which are clearly not, on the whole, simply all good or all bad. D. M. West (2013), Digital schools: How technology can transform education (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press); N. Burbules and T. Callister (2000), Watch IT: The risks and promises of technologies for education (Boulder, CO: Westview). pp.33-48. Globalisation, Societies and Education aims to fill Ways in which development came to visualize social change in sectoral terms like rural land use, cities, and education, while objectifying people in target groups. Today, all countries of the world are covered in varying degrees of globalization. Culturally, this can include homogenization and loss of indigenous knowledge, and ways of life, or cultural clashes that are seen to arise out of the processes of relativization and emulation in some cases. 18. See for example, S. K. Gallwey and G. Wilgus (2014), Equitable partnerships for mutual learning or perpetuator of North-South power imbalances? ), Comparative education research (pp. Few would deny that processes of globalization have impacted education around the world in many important ways. This essay is attempted to explore the relationship between globalization and primary school education in Hong Kong. Controversies over which attitudes of sustainability are most important to inculcate, and whether it is important to inculcate them, intertwine with debates over what crises are most pertinent and what skills and competencies students should develop. 73. Students have more choices when it comes to learning independently or alongside peers, mentors, or experts, in a range of disciplines, vocations, and fields. However, there is no global consensus on the exact time period of its occurrence, or its most significant shaping processes, from social and cultural framings to those that hold global political-economic systems or transnational social actors as most influential. Numerous studies have assessed the impact of globalization on entrepreneurship, but those were limited to the study on few countries [ 30 , 31 ], and See, for instance, J. Stiglitz (2006), Making globalization work (New York: W. W. Norton). G. Mathews (2011), Ghetto at the center of the world (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press). International Sociology, 15, 249265. Alternatively, Benjamin Barber25 and Samuel Huntington26 have focused on Jihad versus McWorld and the clash of civilizations, respectively, as cultures can be seen to mix in negative and unfriendly ways in the context of globalization. However, along with the rise historically of nationalist and patriotic political discourse, theories of cosmopolitanism also emerged. First explored here is the way that globalization can be seen to impact education, as global processes and practices have been observed to influence many educational systems policies and structures; values and ideals; pedagogy; curriculum and assessment; as well as broader conceptualizations of teacher and learner, and the good life. T. Reagan (2000), Non-Western educational traditions: Alternative approaches to educational thought (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum). To a certain extent, ethical standards for surgical care are bound by both culture and custom. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education, UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, Educational Administration and Leadership, Research on Globalizations Impact on Education, Educations Potential Impact on Globalization, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.52, The World Bank and Educational Assistance, European Studies and Research in Adult Learning and Education, Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Higher Education in India and Globally, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in Asia, Globalization of Educational Knowledge and Research, Constructions of Justice, Marginalization, and Belonging in Education, Educational Attainment and Integration of Foreign Students in Spain. Introduction The core ideas developed in this is chapter were stimulated by two studies in which the authors explored how globalization is affecting higher education in the USA. Upon mutual recognition of nations, kingdoms, and the like as larger communities that do not include all of humanity, emulation stemming from comparison of the local to the external was often a next step.4 While most people and communities resisted, dismissed, or denied the possibility of a global human collectivity, they nonetheless compared their own cultures and lives with those beyond their borders. Modern cosmopolitanism as a concept unfolded particularly in the liberalism of Immanuel Kant, who argued for a spirit of world citizenship toward perpetual peace, wherein people recognize themselves as citizens of the world.7 Martha Nussbaum locates cosmopolitanisms roots in the more distant past, however, observing Diogenes the Cynic (ca. Internationalization Research that focuses on globalization and education uses a wide array of approaches and methods, topics, and orientations, as well as diverse theoretical perspectives and normative assumptions. Thus, what we commonly see around the world today as education, mass schooling of children, could be regarded as a first instance of globalizations impact on education, as in many non-Western contexts traditional education had been conceived as small-scale, local community-based, and as vocational or apprenticeship education, and/or religious training.39 In much of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and the indigenous Americas and Australasia, institutionalized formal schools emerged for the first time within colonial or (often intersecting) missionary projects, for local elite youth and children of expatriate officials. Educators are no longer expected merely to react to globalization, they must purposefully interact with it, preparing students around the world to respond to globalizations challenges. M. Nussbaum (1996), For love of country? Thus, globalization can be defined as the stretching of economic, political, and social relationships in space and time. True (Eds.) However, a challenge is that such scholarship should not be reduced artificially to one local level in such a way as to exclude understanding of international interactions, in what has been called in the research community methodological nationalism.71 Such reductive localism or nationalism can arise particularly in comparative education research, as nation-states have been traditional units for comparative analysis, but are today recognized as being too diverse from one to the next to be presumed similar (while global processes impact them in disparate ways).72 Thus, Rizvi has articulated global ethnography as a focused approach to the analysis of international educational projects that traces interconnections and interactions of local and global actors.73 In comparative educational research, units of analysis must be critically pondered and selected, and it is also possible to make comparisons across levels within one context (for instance, from local educational interactions to higher-level policy-making processes in one society).74, Qualitative and quantitative analyses can be undertaken to measure global educational achievements, values, policy statements, and more; yet researcher reflexivity and positionality, what is traditionally conceived of as research ethics, is increasingly seen as vital for researchers in this politically and ethically contentious field. Educators do not merely react to globalization and related processes, but purposefully interact with them, as they prepare their students to respond to challenges and opportunities posed by processes associated with globalization. Intersecting questions also arise regarding whether its influence on human communities and the world should be conceived as mostly good or mostly bad, which have clear and significant implications for understanding debates regarding the relationship between globalization and education. On the other hand, the case for globalization as a general enhancer of education worldwide has compelling evidence as well. Rather than take sides within this contentious field, it is useful to examine major debates and trends, and indicate where readers can learn more about particular specialist areas within the field and other relevant strands of research. S. J. Shin (2009), Bilingualism in schools and society (London: Routledge); H. Norberg-Hodge (2009), Ancient futures: Lessons from Ladakh for a globalizing world (San Francisco: Sierra Club). 42. WebEducation is undergoing constant changes under the impact of globalization. While the educational values of countries can and do vary, from democracy and peace, to social justice and equity, and so on, Rizvi and Lingard also observed that social and economic efficiency views have become dominant within governments and their educational policy units.47 Though human capital theory has always supported the view that individuals gain proportionately according to the investment in their education and training, this view has become globalized in recent decades to emphasize how whole societies can flourish under economic interdependency via enhanced education. See, for instance, H. Tange and S. Miller (2015), Opening the mind? 5. In the same way as culturally oriented globalization scholars, those theorizing from an economic and/or political perspective conceive the processes of globalization emerging most substantively in the 15th and 16th centuries, through the development of the capitalist world economic system and the growth of British- and European-based empires holding vast regions of land in Africa, Asia, and the Americas as colonies to enhance trade and consumption within empire capitals. 85121) (Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre/University of Hong Kong). 52. 34. 20. 330332) (Urbana, IL: Philosophy of Education Society). According to Immanuel Wallersteins world system theory, which emerged before globalization theory, in the 1970s, the capitalist world economic system is one of the most essential framing elements of the human experience around the world in the modern (or postmodern) era.9 Interaction across societies primarily for economic purposes, not bounded by a unitary political structure, characterizes the world economy, as well as a capitalist order, which conceives the main purpose of international economic exchange as being the endless generation and accumulation of capital.10 A kind of global logic was therein introduced, which has expanded around the globe as we now see ourselves as located within an international financial system. WebThen, the relationship between globalization and education policy will be uncovered by pointing out to the main global educational discourses that affect nation-states educational policies today. Such research may consider the practices and patterns of movement, collaboration, research production and publication, and authorship of researchers, and examine data from cultural, political, and economic perspectives, asking whose knowledge is regarded as valid and most prized, and what voices dominate in conversations and discourse around globalization and education, such as in classrooms studying global studies in education, or in leading research journals.78 Related research emerging includes questions such as who produces knowledge, who is the subject of knowledge, and where are data gathered, as recurring historical patterns may appear to be reproduced in contemporary scholarship, wherein those from the global North are more active in investigating and elaborating knowledge in the field, while those from the global South appear most often as subjects of research. For example, the Irish bailout of 2008 demonstrated how government assistance to banks and asset guarantees can shift banking risk to the government. 2.2 Governance, conflicts, peace and stability, and globalization Neo-liberal economists have tended to over-stress the negative relationship between governance and conflicts (cf. People around the world have more access to information than ever before with the mass use of the Internet, and students of all ages can access massive open online courses (MOOCs); dynamic, data-rich online encyclopedias; and communities of like-minded scholars through social networks and forums.58 In brick-and-mortar classrooms, educators and students are more diverse than ever due to enhanced educational mobility, and both are exposed to a greater variety of ideas and perspectives that can enhance learning for all participants. There is no global consensus on the exact time period of its occurrence or its most significant shaping processes, from those who focus on its social and cultural framings to those that hold global political-economic systems or transnational social actors as most influential. ), Inequality in education: Comparative and international perspectives (pp. B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffin (Eds.) Jackson, Education for Sustainable Development. ), Comparative education research (pp. In fields of comparative and international education and global studies in education, scholars are increasingly calling today for theories and empirical investigations that are oriented toward specificity, particularity, and locality, in contrast with the grand theories of globalization elaborated by political scholars. See S. Y. Kang (2006), Identity-centered multicultural care theory: White, Black, and Korean caring, Educational Foundations, 20(34), 3549; L. Jackson (2016), Altruism, non-relational caring, and global citizenship education, in M. Moses (Ed. In line with the controversies over normative views of globalization, whether the curriculum should echo globalist or skeptical positions remains contested by educators and researchers in the field. Introduction Globalization is a relatively new term, first appearing in the 1970s and quickly supplanting earlier concepts sharing roughly similar terrain (internationalization, postcolonialism, new international economic order). Diane Brook Napier. 63. Similarly, but moving away from cultural aspects of globalization, Ulrich Beck highlighted risk as essential to understanding globalization, as societies face new problems that may be related to economy or even public health, and as their interdependencies with others deepen and increase.28 Beck gave the example of Mad Cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) as one instance where much greater and more broadly distributed risks have been created through global economic and political processes. With the rise of global standardized tests such as the OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), educational discourse in Western societies has increasingly emphasized the need to reorient education to East Asian models (such as Singapore or Shanghai), seen as victors of the tests.50 On the other hand, many see Finlands educational system as ideal in relation to its economic integration in society and focus on equity in structure and orientation, and thus educators in the Middle East, East Asia, and the United States have also been seen to consider emulating Finnish education in the 2010s.51, Evaluations: From a normative point of view, some regard changes to local education in many contexts brought about by globalization as harmful and risky. P. Kennedy (2011), Local lives and global transformations: Towards a world society (London: Palgrave). The effects of globalization on education bring fast development of communication technology and It covers the most important processes of social and economic development in the world, helping to accelerate economic growth and modernization, cultural exchange. Globalization as a contemporary condition or process clearly shapes education around the globe, in terms of policies and values; curriculum and assessment; pedagogy; educational organization and leadership; conceptions of the learner, the teacher, and the good life; and more. 268289) (Oxford: Blackwell). There are varied effects of globalization on education, as determined by different studies and experience. Globalization is a process that enhances the free movement and sharing of ideas across a wider platform that can be accessed by people from various parts of the world. ), Globalization and the study of education (pp. 5785), Theories of international relations (New York: Palgrave Macmillan). (1995), The post-colonial studies reader (London: Routledge). Intersecting questions also arise regarding whether its influence on human communities and the world should be conceived of as mostly good or mostly bad, which have significant implications for debates regarding the relationship between globalization and education. 72. Arjun Appadurais conception of global flows frames globalization as taking place as interactive movements or waves of interlinked practices, people, resources, and ideologies: ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, finanscapes, and ideoscapes.19 Ethnoscapes are waves of people moving across cultures and borders, while mediascapes are moving local, national, and international constructions of information and images. WebCompeting understandings of globalization also undergird diverse methodologies and perspectives in expanding fields of research into the relationship between education and globalization. 71. WebThe influence of globalization on education systems and education delivery is a topic that is increasingly being discussed among governments, teachers, students and communities. WebIt draws a connection between globalization and concepts such as multiculturalism and cosmopolitanism. M. Manzon (2015), Comparing places, in M. Bray, B. Adamson, and M. Mason (Eds. See for instance P. Sahlberg (2014), Finnish lessons 2.0: What can the world learn from educational change in Finland? 29. it increases the level of education as well as it enhances the education system of that specific country because 57. 24. At the most basic level, historical processes that many identify as essential precursors to political-economic globalization during the late modern colonial and imperialist eras influenced the development and rise of mass education. 41. W. Bello (2004), Deglobalization: Ideas for a new world economy (London: New York University Press); Bello (2013), Capitalisms last stand? As Martha Nussbaum has argued, educators should work to develop in students feelings of compassion, altruism, and empathy that extend beyond national borders.62 Kathy Hytten has likewise written that students need to learn today as part of global citizenship education not just feelings of sympathy for people around the world, but critical skills to identify root causes of problems that intersect the distinction of local and global, as local problems can be recognized as interconnected with globalization processes.63 In relation to this, UNESCO and nongovernmental organizations and foundations such as Oxfam and the Asia Society have focused on exploring current practices and elaborating best practices from a global comparative standpoint for the dissemination of noncognitive, affective, transversal 21st-century competencies, to extend civic education in the future in the service of social justice and peace, locally and globally.64. However, many leading scholars of globalization have argued that the major causes or shapers of globalization, particularly the movement and mixing of elements beyond a local or national level, is at least many centuries old; others frame globalization as representing processes inherent to the human experience, within a 5,00010,000-year time frame.1 Conceptualizations of globalization have typically highlighted cultural, political-economic, and/or technological aspects of these processes, with different researchers emphasizing and framing the relationships among these different aspects in diverse ways in their theories. 39. 50. At that time, global ideologies were perceived which spanned diverse cultures and nation-states, while global economic and military interdependency became undeniable facts of the human condition. In light of such concerns, Walden Bello argued for deglobalization, a reaction and response by people that aims to fight against globalization and reorient communities to local places and local lifestyles. ), Philosophy of Education 2008 (pp. See for example, Report to the UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century (1996), Learning: The treasure within (Paris: UNESCO); Asia Society (2015), A Rosetta Stone for noncognitive skills: Understanding, assessing, and enhancing noncognitive skills in primary and secondary education (New York: Asia Society). S. Walby (2009), Globalization and inequalities (London: SAGE). Under glocalization, understood as local-level globalization processes (rather than top-down intervention), local actors interact dynamically with, and are not merely oppressed by, ideas, products, things, and practices from outside and beyond. Globalization emerged within common discourse as the process of international economic and political integration and interdependency was seen to deepen and intensify during and after the Cold War era of international relations. As mentioned previously, skills for gaining knowledge have taken precedent over knowledge accumulation, with the rise of technology and postindustrial economies. A. Giddens (1990), The consequences of modernity (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity), 64; see also D. Harvey (1990), The condition of post-modernity (London: Blackwell). U. Beck (1992), The risk society: Toward a new modernity (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity). It is essential to understand the history of global surgery and its 33. Meanwhile, the globalization of educational testingthat is, the use of the same tests across societies around the worldhas had a tremendous impact on local pedagogies, assessment, and curricula the world over. Deglobalization in the age of austerity (London: Zed Books). At the broadest level, globalization can be defined as a process or condition of the cultural, political, economic, and technological meeting and mixing of people, ideas, and resources, across local, national, and regional borders, which has been largely perceived to have increased in intensity and scale during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Additionally, how these skills, competencies, and dispositions intersect with the cognitive skills and political views of education across societies with different cultures of teaching and learning also remains contentious. Alternatively, some argue that the focus on globalization in research, theorization, and popular discourse fails to recognize the agency of people and communities as actors in the world today, and for this reason should be avoided and replaced by a focus on the transnational. As Michael Peter Smith articulates, ordinary individual people, nation-states, and their practices remain important within the so-called global system; a theory of faceless, ahistorical globalization naturalizes global processes and precludes substantive elaboration of how human (and national) actors have played and continue to play primary roles in the world through processes of knowledge and value construction, and through interpersonal and transnational activities.22, The second strand of globalization skepticism might be referred to as antiglobalist or antiglobalization positions. Theorizing the Relationship Between Education and Globalization Turning now toward the education sector , both the wide-ranging transformations over recent (pp. K. Hytten (2009), Education for critical democracy and compassionate globalization, in R. Glass (Ed. ), Comparative education research, 421. As Fazal Rizvi and Bob Lingard note, these are ideal types, rather than clearly demarcated practical parties or camps of theorists, though they have become familiar and themselves a part of the social imaginary of globalization (that is, the way globalization is perceived in normative and empirical ways by ordinary people rather than researchers).21 The positions are also reflected in the many educational discourses relating to globalization, despite their ideological rather than simply empirical content. Shifting Funding Patterns and The Privatization of Higher Education 51. Today, comparative education remains one major field among others that focuses on globalization and education, including international education and global studies in education. As democracy becomes popular around the world as a result of global communication processes, Scott Burchill has argued that universal human rights can be achieved to enhance global freedom in the near future.34 Joseph Stiglitz likewise envisioned a democratizing globalization that can include developing countries on an equal basis and transform economic beings to human beings with values of community and social justice.35 Relatedly, some globalists contend against skeptics that cultural and economic-political or ideological hybridity and glocalization, as well as homogenization or cultural clashes, often can and do take place. Education and educators impacts on globalization also remain a worthwhile focus of exploration in research and theorization. The Reports on the Secretariats Knowledge Network Meetings are available on the Commissions web site or in a special publication from the ILO (ISBN 92-2-115711-1). G. P. Fairbrother, Qualitative and quantitative approaches to comparative education, in Bray, Adamson, and Mason (Eds. 26. Skeptical views: Approaches to globalization in research that are described as skeptical may question or problematize globalization discourse in one of two different ways. ( 2009 ), Comparing places, in Bray, b. Adamson, and Mason Eds! And patriotic political discourse, theories of cosmopolitanism also emerged it enhances the education sector, the! Education, as determined by different studies and experience with the rise technology., g. Griffiths, and m. Mason ( Eds. general enhancer of education as.... Are covered in varying degrees of globalization have impacted education around the world from. A connection between globalization and inequalities ( London: SAGE ) into the relationship between globalization and concepts as! Finnish lessons 2.0: What can the world ( Hong Kong: Comparative and international (! 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