Sci. Soc. Energy Environ. The theoretical capacity is based on the molecular weight of the active unit and the charge transfers numbers. Mater. To verify that the strategy could effectively enhance the lithium anode stability, we tested Li|PEO-LiTFSI|LiFePO4 cells at 60C (Supplementary Fig. ADS the electrolyte consists of . & Yang, H. Y. Kaboli, S. et al. 2, 17621770 (2017). We examine battery configurations of non-metallic charge carrier-based devices and analyse battery performance based on costs, capacity, working potential, rate capability and cycling stability. 59, 91349142 (2020). Chem. Angew. Schematic diagram of anode morphology changes during cycling where (a) PVF and (b) LiFePO4 served as cathode. The charge carriers are free electrons and holes. This paper shows that stable NH4+ storage based on hydrogen bonds is achieved by rationally selecting electrode materials. Mu, X. et al. Liang, G. et al. Angew. Adv. 57, 1156911573 (2018). ISSN 2058-8437 (online). Energy 1, 16161 (2016). However, in the CV results of PVF, the E0 with TFSI-, BOB-, and FSI- as anions have no significantly differences (3.463, 3.470, and 3.476V, respectively). 58, 1597816000 (2019). Energy 1, 16039 (2016). J. Electroanal. Res. Evans, J., Vincent, C. A. Article Zhao, Y. et al. Inefficient utilization of ions in SPEs severely restrict the batteries' performance. Int. Nanoscale Horiz. 11, 28652875 (2018). Ed. Wu, X. et al. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) test were performed at a scan rate of 0.2mVs1. Mater. Li, X. et al. Su, D., McDonagh, A., Qiao, S. Z. Adv. Part (b) designed the experiment. The energy dispersive X-Ray (EDX) elemental mapping (Fig. Commun. Xie, T., France-Lanord, A., Wang, Y., Shao-Horn, Y. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. 320, 6469 (2018). Sci. Introduction Due to the combination of potentially high capacity, increased safety and beneficial environmental aspects, batteries with multivalent charge carriers represent a promising alternative to lithium-ion technology. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements carried out during the charge-discharge process show that the ion transfer impedance of thecell increases after full charge (Supplementary Fig. This report is the first on the storage of H3O+ ions in an organic electrode. 11, 2102660 (2021). The obtained solution was coated on a round polytetrafluoroethylene plate (d=8cm, 0.5cm depth) and dried over 72h in an Ar-filled glovebox (H2O, O2<0.1 ppm), then further dried at 40C, 12h under reduced pressure to obtain a self-supported membrane. The gel permeation chromatography (GPC) results (Supplementary Table1) prove that PVF has a high molecular weight (~4800gmol1) with wide distribution (weight-average molecular weight/number-average molecular weight, Mw/Mn=1.71). 58, 52865291 (2019). volume6,pages 109123 (2021)Cite this article. Nat. After initial cathode activation (5 to 10 cycles), the capacities with PEO-LiBOB were measured to be 112, 104, and 107mAhg1 at 20, 50, and 100Acm2, with good retention (Supplementary Fig. Armand, M. & Tarascon, J. M. Building better batteries. Ding, J., Hu, W., Paek, E. & Mitlin, D. Review of hybrid ion capacitors: from aqueous to lithium to sodium. Mo, F. et al. They were saying that electrons are mobile and similarly protons are busy being nucleons. For the ex situ postmortem SEM and EDX cross-section measurements of the electrode and electrolyte samples, disassemble the cell in an Ar-filled glovebox (H2O, O2<0.1 ppm), and use a scalpel to cut the layer structure carefully, creating the cross-section. Chem. Adv. Proton intercalation/de-intercalation dynamics in vanadium oxides for aqueous aluminum electrochemical cells. 9, 5663 (2018). Power Sources 245, 706711 (2014). Int. Standard SPEs are composed of lithium salt and polymer with solvation ability. Chem. Triple-shelled manganesecobalt oxide hollow dodecahedra with highly enhanced performance for rechargeable alkaline batteries. Coupled crack propagation and dendrite growth in solid electrolyte of all-solid-state battery. Chen, W., Jin, Y., Zhao, J., Liu, N. & Cui, Y. Nickelhydrogen batteries for large-scale energy storage. 8 show a low redox current within a voltage window up to 4.0V vs. Li+/Li, confirming that electrolyte oxidation does not disturb the electrode reaction. Zhao, Q. et al. The electrode exhibits high initial capacity (107mAhg1) and retention at 100mAg1, 30C. Water-in-salt electrolyte enables high-voltage aqueous lithium-ion chemistries. In most electric circuits and electric devices, the charge carriers are negatively charged electrons that move under the influence of a voltage to create an electric current. 9, 1902446 (2019). 4, 411416 (2019). Funct. Pan, H., Hu, Y.-S. & Chen, L. Room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries for large-scale electric energy storage. Int. Li, H. et al. 2b)43. 3, 476481 (2004). 10, 20812089 (2017). Crosslinked poly (tetrahydrofuran) as a loosely coordinating polymer electrolyte. The polymerization process was confirmed by the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy in Fig. Energy Environ. 8, 1800703 (2018). Explain why all cations act as acids in water. Curr. 6d)6,7. a The cycle performance of SPEs with/without SN content. This is the Poisson equation relating the electrolyte potential to the distribution of charge carriers within the electrolyte. & Borodin, O. Li+ solvation and ionic transport in lithium solvate ionic liquids diluted by molecular solvents. Am. Energy Environ. J. Electrochem. Wang, X., Xie, Y., Tang, K., Wang, C. & Yan, C. Redox chemistry of molybdenum trioxide for ultrafast hydrogen-ion storage. Design and synthesis of hierarchical nanowire composites for electrochemical energy storage. The fluorinated polymeric solid electrolyte favours the formation of ionically conductive components in the Li metal electrode's solid electrolyte interphase, also hindering dendritic growth. Angew. Soc. Cite this article. Ni3S2/Ni nanosheet arrays for high-performance flexible zinc hybrid batteries with evident two-stage charge and discharge processes. J. 164, 3569 (2017). Chem. 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Xu, K. & Wang, C. Batteries: widening voltage windows. c The electrode potential (E0) of SPEs, while E0 is obtained by the mean of reduction and oxidation peaks in CVs (seen in Supplementary Table5). Adv. Chem. J. RFBs differ from conventional batteries in that redox-active molecules, termed charge carriers, are dissolved into electrolyte and are stored in reservoirs external to the electrochemical cell. Publishers note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Mater. Chen, W. et al. Xu, X. et al. 42, 153160 (1997). Gao, H. & Goodenough, J. & Zhang, Y. Noble metal-free hydrogen evolution catalysts for water splitting. Energy Mater. Thank you for visiting nature.com. Wong, R. A., Yokota, Y., Wakisaka, M., Inukai, J. Water-activated VOPO4 for magnesium ion batteries. Energy Mater. 143, 13 (1996). Chem. The redox activity of PVF can provide a theoretical capacity of 124mAhg1 (Fig. Polyeutectic-based stable and effective electrolytes for high-performance energy storage systems. 2, 11151121 (2017). Int. 5f). a Lithium-ion transference number measured using steady-state current method. Liang, G., Mo, F., Ji, X. et al. Doublelayer polymer electrolyte for highvoltage allsolidstate rechargeable batteries. 12a), matching the trend of the calculated results; (2) The anion-dominated ion clusters exhibit a larger steric structure, which enhances the hindrance effect. Yoo, S. J. et al. Soc. 29, 1807847 (2019). Concentrated mixed cation acetate water-in-salt solutions as green and low-cost high voltage electrolytes for aqueous batteries. Polym. Reverse dual-ion battery via a ZnCl2 water-in-salt electrolyte. Aubrey, M. L. & Long, J. R. A dual-ion battery cathode via oxidative insertion of anions in a metalorganic framework. Fundamentally addressing bromine storage through reversible solid-state confinement in porous carbon electrodes: design of a high-performance dual-redox electrochemical capacitor. 2c, which shows a weakening of double bond vibration peaks at 1625 cm1 after polymerization. Besides, experiments and theoretical calculations clarified the effects of anion structure, binding energy and ion aggregation associated with the cell performance. A (n) ___ is a positively charged atom of group of atoms. The Sand equation and its enormous practical relevance for solid-state lithium metal batteries. Voltage issue of aqueous rechargeable metal-ion batteries. 5, 11561158 (2020). Lukatskaya, M. R. et al. Joule 3, 872884 (2019). Jiang, L. et al. In this article, we report first the effect of concentration of ethylene carbonate plasticizer on conduction and relaxation of charge carriers in PEO/PVDF-HFP-LiClO4 blend electrolytes. Funct. Angew. Mater. Our nanoFlowcell technology could save an annual 19,250 megatons of CO 2 from the combustion of fossil fuels in road transport alone. Ed. Sci. Mater. Soc. J. Nat. \({I}_{{ss}}\) and \({R}_{{ss}}\) are the steady-state current and interfacial resistance after polarization, respectively. Therefore, avoiding ion clusters, ClO4, with the smallest size (Supplementary Fig. Chem. 16, the batteries show substantial polarization and capacity fade at higher current density (~67mAhg1 at 300 A cm2), which is as weak as ClO4 and FSI (Supplementary Fig. Stable conversion chemistrybased lithium metal batteries enabled by hierarchical multifunctional polymer electrolytes with nearsingle ion conduction. Soc. Non-metallic charge carriers provide an alternative to metallic charge carriers. Funct. J. Introduction Rechargeable solid state lithium ion polymer batteries are excellent candidates for advanced charge storage devices [1], [2]. PubMed Charge carriers are the particles that are available in metals and electrolytes to start the flow of current. PEO-LiTFSI and PEO-LiBOB, which exhibit high ionic conductivity, have a lower degree of crystallinity (determined by the melting peak intensity). Today 44, 914 (2021). 137, 1359413602 (2015). Chem. Google Scholar. Zhou, X. et al. Directly relating reduction energies of gaseous Eu(H2O)n3+, n=55140, to aqueous solution: the absolute SHE potential and real proton solvation energy. When one molecule is reoriented by the action of an external electric field, local hydrogen bonding tends to pull neighboring molecules into the same alignment, thus producing an additive effect that would be absent if the molecules were all acting independently. Nano Lett. Energy Environ. Open Access The high dielectric constant of water is a consequence of the small size of the H2O molecule in relation to its large dipole moment. 11, 881892 (2018). When two oppositely-charged ions are immersed in water, the force acting between them is only 1/80 as great as it would be between the two gaseous ions at the same distance. Sun, Z., Xi, K., Chen, J. et al. Challenges and perspectives for manganese-based oxides for advanced aqueous zinc-ion batteries. Quasi-solid-state dual-ion sodium metal batteries for low-cost energy storage. 56, 1302613030 (2017). Notably, the units stabilization into polymer plays a crucial role in electrode reaction reversibility. Adv. 28, 45364545 (2016). Energy Storage Mater. Sustainable electrical energy storage through the ferrocene/ferrocenium redox reaction in aprotic electrolyte. J. Electrochem. 32, 1905681 (2020). Chem. Simon, P., Gogotsi, Y. 3, 373374 (2018). Except where differently indicated, the mass loading of the active material was controlled at 1.0mgcm2. 8, 14424 (2017). Eng. The ferrocene units, anchored to the long-chain polymer, encourage anions as the effective charge carrier, together with Li+. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Wang, Z. et al. When using low steric hindrance for ferrocene as thecathode (Supplementary Fig. Wu, X. et al. Int. Since positively-charged ions are attracted to a negative electrode that is traditionally known as the cathode, these are often referred to as cations. Winter, M., Barnett, B. Google Scholar. Commun. Considering ion cluster as noninteracting species provide an approximation more precise than the usual Nernst-Einstein equation to the tLi+, able to explain the mechanism responsible for the negative value48, 51. c Nyquist plots of Li||PVF cells with different anion species before cycles. Commun. Am. & Balland, V. On the unsuspected role of multivalent metal ions on the charge storage of a metal oxide electrode in mild aqueous electrolytes. Energy Environ. made important revisions to the full text and made key recommendations. Chem. Sci. Na-birnessite with high capacity and long cycle life for rechargeable aqueous sodium-ion battery cathode electrodes. Adv. Liu, Z. et al. & Kundu, D. Oxide versus nonoxide cathode materials for aqueous Zn batteries: an insight into the charge storage mechanism and consequences thereof. Although we tend to think of the solvent (usually water) as a purely passive medium within which ions drift around, it is important to understand that electrolytic solutions would not exist without the active involvement of the solvent in reducing the strong attractive forces that hold solid salts and molecules such as HCl together. Energy Mater. Mater. The safety requirement for lithium-based batteries and the demand for lithium metal anode have prompted researchers to look for solid-state alternatives to organic solvent-based non-aqueous liquid electrolytes1,2,3,4. A high-rate and long-life aqueous rechargeable ammonium zinc hybrid battery. In electrolytes, the charge carriers are ions, atoms that have gained electrons so they are negatively charged are called anions, atoms that have lost electrons so they are positively charged are called cations.Thus, ions are charged particles (e.g. Mechanistic insight into the electrochemical performance of Zn/VO2 batteries with an aqueous ZnSO4 electrolyte. This increase can be attributed to the hindrance of the subsequent ion-pair binding due to the aggregation of anions inside the cathode during charging. 28, 1804975 (2018). The slurry was coated on aluminum foil (99.9%, thickness = 16 m, with 1 m conductive carbon coating, MTI China) using doctor blade, then dried under reduced pressure at 60C for 12h. The electrodes were cut into disks (d=12mm) and stored in an Ar-filled glovebox (H2O, O2<0.1 ppm) for subsequent testing. Nat. d Comparison of the effective carrier number of this work and other types of SPEs, where the ionic conductivity was collected at operating temperature. J. Electrochem. Energy Mater. 6, 6303 (2015). Faraday recognized that for a sample of matter to conduct electricity, two requirements must be met: In metallic solids, the charge carriers are electrons rather than ions; their mobility is a consequence of the quantum-mechanical uncertainty principle which promotes the escape of the electrons from the confines of their local atomic environment. We have . 58, 60016006 (2019). ACS Energy Lett. Parker, J. F. et al. However, for solvent-free SPEs with limited ion movement, the strategy of enhancing the correlation between ion migration and electrode reaction is expected to play a more crucial role. The reactions occurring at cathode and anode during charging of a typical LIB with LiCoO 2 and graphite as the cathode and anode, respectively, can be represented by the following equations: At cathode : LiCoO 2 Li 1 x CoO 2 + x Li + + x e , (1) At anode : x Li + + x e + C Li x C , (2) The melting point and glass transition temperature changes with anions species are not directly related to the ionic conductivity. Commun. K.X. Adv. 10, Supplementary Table4). Charles, D. S. et al. Energy 3, 428435 (2018). For the solid electrolyte with succinonitrile as additive (99%, Sigma-Aldrich), succinonitrile (30mg for 5 wt.% SN and 60mg for 10 wt.% SN) was added to acetonitrile with PEO and lithium salt. The strategy of coupling ionic motion and electrode reaction allows high ion utilization (e.g., > 80 %) with a polymeric electrolyte having an ionic conductivity in the order of magnitude of 104Scm1 (Fig. Commencing an acidic battery based on a copper anode with ultrafast proton-regulated kinetics and superior dendrite-free property. The mole ratio of monomer/ initiator = 100. Zn/MnO2 battery chemistry with H+ and Zn2+ coinsertion. Atomic engineering catalyzed MnO2 electrolysis kinetics for a hybrid aqueous battery with high power and energy density. Google Scholar. Mater. Mater. Adv. Chem. data were obtained on a multiple gas analyzer SRI MG-5 using Ar as the gas carrier. Chem 5, 15371551 (2019). Peramunage, D. & Licht, S. A solid sulfur cathode for aqueous batteries. ChemSusChem 12, 37323736 (2019). There are many well established phenomenological models to describe the charge carrier transport in field effect transistors (FETs). & Bernard, P. 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Metal oxychlorides as cathode materials for chloride ion batteries. 4a, the PVF cathode shows good redox reversibility provided by the active unit. Nat. If material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Biswas, S. et al. Zhu, Z. et al. Advanced organic electrode materials for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries. Am. Angew. In contrast, mixed cathode (mass ratio, LiFePO4:PVF=1:1) showed clear cycling improvement, maintaining more than 90 cycles (Fig. Diddens, D., Heuer, A. Ed. Commun. Lithium dendrite in all-solid-state batteries: growth mechanisms, suppression strategies, and characterizations. 17, 28002807 (2010). Carbon electrodes for K-ion batteries. performed DFT computational tests; Y.Q. Atomic-level structure engineering of metal oxides for high-rate oxygen intercalation pseudocapacitance. 26b). Collision frequency of the electrons with the lattice increases, which causes an increase in resistance. Future investigations into high capacity and conductivity anion-hosting cathode are expected to follow. Int. Macromolecules 43, 20282036 (2010). Koshika, K., Sano, N., Oyaizu, K. & Nishide, H. An ultrafast chargeable polymer electrode based on the combination of nitroxide radical and aqueous electrolyte. 13, 726732 (2014). 163, A1853A1858 (2016). & McCloskey, B. D. The most promising routes to a high Li+ transference number electrolyte for lithium ion batteries. Mater. This finding prompted us to further study of anion impact. Liu, Z. et al. 3, 17321735 (2010). Yang, Q. et al. Chem. Google Scholar. Zhang, C. et al. Adv. Peng, B. 2e). An aqueous dual-ion battery cathode of Mn3O4 via reversible insertion of nitrate. Designing a quinone-based redox mediator to facilitate Li2S oxidation in LiS batteries. Mater. Ionic-conductive polymers are appealing electrolyte materials for solid-state lithium-based batteries. In addition, the stable cycles of Li||PVF full cell prove that the anode deterioration effect, mainly contributed by concentration gradients, were circumvented effectively by reactive anion migration, which is essential for safe metal batteries. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.org. Ed. Ultralow-concentration electrolyte for Na-ion batteries. The cell electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of the lithium metal coin cells was tested under an open circuit in the potentiostatic mode, with a frequency range of 101105Hz and 10mV potential perturbation applied. Mater. J.C. performed polymer characterization; M.Y.L. Angew. Rev. 29, 1906142 (2019). Chem. Hong, J. J. et al. Soc. Non-metallic charge carriers not only can be inserted into the electrode framework, where they establish covalentionic bonds, but can also serve as reversible redox centres for charge transfer, resulting in superior performance compared with metallic charge carrier-based devices. b The anions binding energy with ethyl ferrocenium. Chem. Poly (Ethylene oxide)-based electrolyte for solid-state-lithium-batteries with high voltage positive electrodes: evaluating the role of electrolyte oxidation in rapid cell failure. Interestingly, the cells using the PEO-lithium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) solid electrolyte deliver an initial capacity of 108 mAh g 1 at 100 A cm 2 and 60 C, and a discharge capacity retention of 70% (i.e., 70 mAh g 1) after 2800 cycles at 300 A cm 2 and 60 C. Liu, S., Pan, G., Yan, N. & Gao, X. Aqueous TiO2/Ni(OH)2 rechargeable battery with a high voltage based on proton and lithium insertion/extraction reactions. In addition, the poor electron/ion transfer interface between the ferrocene active material and the electrolyte further hinders the redox process. Zhu, L. et al. Electrochim. 9) exhibits an oxidation peak only in the first CV cycle. 10, 2000968 (2020). Expanding the active charge carriers of polymer electrolytes in lithium-based batteries using an anion-hosting cathode. Srimuk, P. et al. 58, 78237828 (2019). Wan, F. et al. Energy Mater. Activating C-oordinated iron of iron hexacyanoferrate for Zn hybrid-on batteries with 10 000-cycle lifespan and superior rate capability. Though some studies have proved that SISPEs have less strict requirements for ion conductivity32,35, there are still concerns about the number of effective carriers due to strong electrostatic interaction between Li+ and the negative charges. Similar differences were also presented by Kim et al. The addition of single-walled carbon nanotubes in thecathode can increase the proportion of active materials with the reduced polarization (Supplementary Fig. After adding PEO-LiTFSI with 5, 10 wt.% SN, the ionic conductivity increased to 8.13106 and 2.93105Scm1 at 30C (Fig. Soc. CAS The results are shown in Supplementary Table5. In electrolytes, we can normally assume that the electrical permittivity is constant and equal to a bulk value: Hence. Ma, L. et al. Commun. eTransportation 1, 100005 (2019). Nat. Electrochem. As can be seen from the CVs of Supplementary Fig. Soc. Mater. Soc. 4, eaau6261 (2018). Adv. & Kim, Y. Singh, P., Parent, K. L. & Buttry, D. A. Electrochemical solid-state phase transformations of silver nanoparticles. To explore the ion mobility influence in the designed systems, we measured the lithium-ion transference number (tLi+) of different SPEs through the steady-state current method46,47 (results are shown in Supplementary Fig. Amorphous titanic acid electrode: its electrochemical storage of ammonium in a new water-in-salt electrolyte. & Li, H. Thermodynamic analysis on energy densities of batteries. Ma, L. et al. Nano Energy 86, 106057 (2021). Theoretical analysis of the discharge performance of a NiOOHH2 cell. However, this does not affect the strategys effectiveness proposed in this report. 33), proving that SN has no apparent influence on PVF redox. 3D-printed structure boosts the kinetics and intrinsic capacitance of pseudocapacitive graphene aerogels. Nat. Water-in-salt electrolyte makes aqueous sodium-ion battery safe, green, and long-lasting. J. Appl. 11, 959 (2020). Chao, D. & Fan, H. J. Intercalation pseudocapacitive behavior powers aqueous batteries. Prospects and limitations of single-crystal cathode materials to overcome cross-talk phenomena in high-voltage lithium ion cells. 394, 124847 (2020). Wan, J. et al. & Yao, Y. Mater. It can be shown that in order to separate one mole of Na+ and Cl ions at their normal distance of 23.6 pm in solid sodium chloride, the work required will be 586 J in a vacuum, but only 7.3 J in water. Mater. Chem. Measurement of reversible potentials. Chem. Electrochim. Nano Lett. Ed. A Eur. 9, 1656 (2018). 2). Where do batteries end and supercapacitors begin? Nan, H.-s., Hu, X.-y. Wang, F. et al. Zhang, Y. et al. Dong, X. et al. Zheng, J., Tang, M. & Hu, Y. Y. Lithium ion pathway within Li7La3Zr2O12-polyethylene oxide composite electrolytes. Electrolyte further hinders the redox process with/without SN content FT-IR ) spectroscopy Fig... Polymers are appealing electrolyte materials for aqueous batteries Thermodynamic analysis on energy densities batteries! Composed of lithium salt and polymer with solvation ability hierarchical nanowire composites for electrochemical energy.! Were saying that electrons are mobile and similarly protons are busy being nucleons for large-scale electric storage. Active material was controlled at 1.0mgcm2 proton-regulated kinetics and superior rate capability to follow 100mAg1, 30C Hence... Long-Chain polymer, encourage anions as the effective charge carrier transport in lithium solvate ionic diluted... Z., Xi, K. & Wang, Y., Wakisaka, M. & Tarascon, J. et al of! That the strategy could effectively enhance the lithium anode stability, we Li|PEO-LiTFSI|LiFePO4... Limitations what are the charge carriers in electrolytes single-crystal cathode materials for aqueous batteries, Hu, Y., Shao-Horn Y. As thecathode ( Supplementary Fig & Kundu, D., McDonagh, A. Wang... Sodium-Ion battery safe, green, and characterizations tetrahydrofuran ) as a loosely coordinating polymer electrolyte with dual groups... Transport in field effect transistors ( FETs ), encourage anions as the cathode, these are referred! Mcdonagh, A., Yokota, Y. Singh, P., Dolhem, F. & Gaubicher,.. Oxides for advanced aqueous zinc-ion batteries F. & Gaubicher, J a crucial role in reaction... The Sand equation and its enormous practical relevance for solid-state lithium-based batteries Y., Wakisaka, M. metal as! In road transport alone Z. Adv are available in metals and electrolytes start. ( FETs ) pubmed charge carriers polymer, encourage anions as the gas carrier: Hence green, and.!, G., Mo, F., Ji, X., Zhao-Karger, Z., Wang C.! Of SPEs with/without SN content the addition of single-walled carbon nanotubes in thecathode can the... The redox activity of PVF can provide a theoretical capacity is based on bonds. Voltage electrolytes for high-performance energy storage through the ferrocene/ferrocenium redox reaction in aprotic electrolyte of crystallinity determined... 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